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Jill L. Drury, Loretta More, Mark Pfaff, & Gary L. Klein. (2009). A principled method of scenario design for testing emergency response decision-making. In S. J. J. Landgren (Ed.), ISCRAM 2009 – 6th International Conference on Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management: Boundary Spanning Initiatives and New Perspectives. Gothenburg: Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management, ISCRAM.
Abstract: We are investigating decision aids that present potential courses of action available to emergency responders. To determine whether these aids improve decision quality, however, we first developed test scenarios that were challenging in well-understood ways to ensure testing under the full breadth of representative decision-making situations. We devised a three-step method of developing scenarios: define the decision space, determine the cost components of each decision's potential consequences based on the principles of Robust Decision Making, then choose conflicting pairs of cost components (e.g., a small fire, implying low property damage, in a densely inhabited area, which implies high personal injury). In a validation of this approach, experiment participants made decisions faster in non-ambiguous cases versus cases that included this principled introduction of ambiguity. Our Principled Ambiguity Method of scenario design is also appropriate for other domains as long as they can be analyzed in terms of costs of decision alternatives.
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Dan Harnesk, Sören Samulesson, & John Lindström. (2009). Action research supported implementation of a crisis competence centre. In S. J. J. Landgren (Ed.), ISCRAM 2009 – 6th International Conference on Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management: Boundary Spanning Initiatives and New Perspectives. Gothenburg: Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management, ISCRAM.
Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to describe the development of a regional crisis competence centre in Sweden. The overall research approach utilizes action research methodology to support the development process. The overall development process is divided into three steps; early need finding, the organizational platform, and business development. This paper is devoted to the first phase – early need finding – which deals with the specific needs and demand of four municipality organizations and how these requirements can be converged into a organizational setting that correspond to national crisis management strategies as well as regional responsibilities in crisis management. The research approach is action based and the theoretical considerations to support progress in development activities are from the Actor Network Theory (ANT). The main conclusion from the research is that the formation of a crisis competence centre revolves around sharing competences, and compromising between internal and external objectives in the progress towards a common goal.
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Norman Kerle. (2009). AÏDA – Providing a framework for objective assessment of ICT for disaster risk management in Africa. In S. J. J. Landgren (Ed.), ISCRAM 2009 – 6th International Conference on Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management: Boundary Spanning Initiatives and New Perspectives. Gothenburg: Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management, ISCRAM.
Abstract: As part of its recently renewed interest in Africa, the European Commission has funded the 2-year project “AÏDA – Advancing ICT for DRM (Disaster Risk Management) in Africa”. AÏDA is primarily an inventory of the ICT situation in Africa – At continental, regional and national scales – To guide European funding decisions in R&D and capacity building in Africa. The first project objective was to develop a conceptual framework for the assessment of ICT for DRM, to serve as the basis for the in-depth regional and detailed studies in 4 countries. The purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of the structure of this CF and its principal findings. By evaluating existing ICT achievements that are or can be applied towards DRM, but also limitations and bottlenecks, the CF can also guide governmental or non-governmental agencies focusing on DRM in Africa, as well as to target research efforts.
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Cláudio Sapateiro, & Pedro Antunes. (2009). An emergency response model toward situational awareness improvement. In S. J. J. Landgren (Ed.), ISCRAM 2009 – 6th International Conference on Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management: Boundary Spanning Initiatives and New Perspectives. Gothenburg: Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management, ISCRAM.
Abstract: When facing emergency scenarios, several contingent factors may strongly condition the pre-defined response procedures. The proposed approach takes the perspective that an emergency response tool may guide the response effort. The tool adopts a conceptual model grounded on existing situation awareness models and research work done with High Reliability Organizations. The model structures the emergency management process in a set of dimensions that should be collaboratively correlated by the involved participants in order to mitigate the disruptive situation. An instantiation of the proposed approach is also described in the paper, focusing on IT service desk teams addressing emergency incidents that may compromise business continuity.
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Michael Hiete, & Mirjam Merz. (2009). An indicator framework to assess the vulnerability of industrial sectors against indirect disaster losses. In S. J. J. Landgren (Ed.), ISCRAM 2009 – 6th International Conference on Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management: Boundary Spanning Initiatives and New Perspectives. Gothenburg: Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management, ISCRAM.
Abstract: Natural and man-made hazards may affect industrial production sites by both direct losses (due to physical damage to assets and buildings) and indirect losses (production losses). Indirect losses, e.g. from production downtimes, can exceed direct losses multiple times. Thus, the vulnerability of industrial sectors to indirect losses is an important component of risk and its determination is an important part within risk analysis. In this paper a conceptual indicator framework is presented which allows to assess the indirect vulnerability of industrial sectors to different types of disasters in a quantitative manner. The results are useful for information sharing and decision making in crisis management and emergency planning (mitigation measures, business continuity planning), since the developed indicator system helps to take the complex phenomenon of industrial vulnerability and the underlying interdependencies into account. Besides the identification and conceptual motivation of the indicators, methodical aspects such as standardization, weighting and aggregation are addressed.
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Ulrich Walder, Thomas Bernoulli, & Thomas Wießflecker. (2009). An indoor positioning system for improved action force command and disaster management. In S. J. J. Landgren (Ed.), ISCRAM 2009 – 6th International Conference on Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management: Boundary Spanning Initiatives and New Perspectives. Gothenburg: Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management, ISCRAM.
Abstract: Managing emergency situations in large buildings and underground structures could be simplified if at any time the positions of on-site emergency crews were available. In this paper a system is proposed which combines inertial measurements of moving persons with building floor plans tagged with information on semantics to achieve a novel level of robust indoor positioning. A speech driven user interface tailored for visualization on head mounted displays makes information easily available for action forces. The system is complemented with a self-configurating communication network based on novel approaches combining mobile ad hoc networks, sensor networks, and professional mobile radio systems to make the locally determined positions available to anybody on-site.
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Connie White, Linda Plotnick, Jane Kushma, Starr Roxanne Hiltz, & Murray Turoff. (2009). An online social network for emergency management. In S. J. J. Landgren (Ed.), ISCRAM 2009 – 6th International Conference on Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management: Boundary Spanning Initiatives and New Perspectives. Gothenburg: Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management, ISCRAM.
Abstract: Online Social Networking Sites (SNS) are becoming extremely popular and can be employed in a variety of contexts. They permit the establishment of global relationships that are domain related or can be based on some general need shared by the participants. Emergency domain related websites, each with their own stated mission, are becoming widespread. Can a social network offer a solution to bringing emergency domain-related entities together as a 'one stop shop?' We propose to investigate whether the social network paradigm can be used to enable individuals and organizations to collaborate in mutually beneficial ways, in all stages of emergency management: mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery. Emergency management students were surveyed to examine the concept of social networks and their acceptance as a potential tool. The results of this exploratory research show overwhelming agreement that SNS should be considered a viable solution to the problems plaguing information dissemination and communications in the emergency domain.
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Mauro Falasca, Christopher W. Zobel, & Gary M. Fetter. (2009). An optimization model for humanitarian relief volunteer management. In S. J. J. Landgren (Ed.), ISCRAM 2009 – 6th International Conference on Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management: Boundary Spanning Initiatives and New Perspectives. Gothenburg: Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management, ISCRAM.
Abstract: One of the challenges of humanitarian organizations is that there exist limited decision technologies that fit their needs. It has also been pointed out that those organizations experience coordination difficulties with volunteers willing to help. The purpose of this paper is to help address those challenges through the development of a decision model to assist in the management of volunteers. While employee workforce management models have been the topic of extensive research over the past decades, no work has focused on the problem of managing humanitarian relief volunteers. In this paper, we discuss a series of principles from the field of volunteer management and develop a multi criteria optimization model to assist in the assignment of volunteers to tasks. We present an illustrative example and analyze a solution methodology where the decision maker exercises his/her preferences by trading-off conflicting objectives. Conclusions, limitations, and directions for future research are also discussed.
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Wolfgang Raskob, Florian Gering, & Valentin Bertsch. (2009). Approaches to visualisation of uncertainties to decision makers in an operational decision support system. In S. J. J. Landgren (Ed.), ISCRAM 2009 – 6th International Conference on Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management: Boundary Spanning Initiatives and New Perspectives. Gothenburg: Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management, ISCRAM.
Abstract: Decision making in case of any emergency is associated with uncertainty of input data, model data and changing preferences in the decision making process. Uncertainty handling was from the beginning an integral part of the decision support system RODOS for the off-site emergency management following nuclear or radiological emergencies. What is missing so far is the visualisation of the uncertainties in the results of the model calculations. In this paper we present the first attempt to visualise uncertain information in the early and late phase of the decision making process. For the early phase, the area of sheltering was selected as example. For the later phase, the results of the evaluation subsystem of RODOS were selected being used for the analysis of remediation measures such as agricultural management options. Both attempts are still under discussion but the presentation of the early phase uncertainty will be realised in the next version.
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Olivier Sarrat. (2009). Building a humanitarian informa0on system: The Experience of the Dynamic COMPAS. In S. J. J. Landgren (Ed.), ISCRAM 2009 – 6th International Conference on Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management: Boundary Spanning Initiatives and New Perspectives. Gothenburg: Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management, ISCRAM.
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Alessio Malizia, Pablo Acuña, Teresa Onorati, Paloma Díaz, & Ignacio Aedo. (2009). CAP-ONES: An emergency notification system for all. In S. J. J. Landgren (Ed.), ISCRAM 2009 – 6th International Conference on Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management: Boundary Spanning Initiatives and New Perspectives. Gothenburg: Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management, ISCRAM.
Abstract: In this paper we present an ontology-based system for managing emergency alert notifications. Our purpose is to generate emergency alerts that are accessible to different kinds of people, paying special attention to more vulnerable collectives like impaired people. By adapting alerts to different devices and users we can allow Emergency Management Systems (EMS) to communicate with collectives like blind or deaf people whom otherwise will be unreachable by usual channels. Moreover, if we consider the constrains imposed by the nature of the emergency situations we can also improve the information transmission to cope with situational disabilities (e.g. smoke during a fire can cause low vision problems). We centered our system architecture on two characteristics: The first one is an ontology that codifies knowledge about accessibility, devices, disabilities, emergencies and media so the alert notification can be tailored according to different parameters; the second one is the use of an open standard like the CAP (Common Alerting Protocol) that enables our system to interoperate with other existing systems.
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Erland Jungert, & Niklas Hallberg. (2009). Capabilities of C2 systems for crisis management in local communities. In S. J. J. Landgren (Ed.), ISCRAM 2009 – 6th International Conference on Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management: Boundary Spanning Initiatives and New Perspectives. Gothenburg: Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management, ISCRAM.
Abstract: Development of information systems support for crisis management in local communities must be based on the needs of the crisis management actors as well as capabilities of information technology (IT). IT provides extensive possibilities, but is difficult to adapt to the users' needs. A profound exploration of the needs of systems for crisis management is often neglected. Hence, the management of major crisis has been held back because of the lack of useful tools. This paper presents an architecture for system for the local communities. The development of the architecture was based on a needs analysis, including interviews with crisis management at a local community level. The architecture is also based on novel design issues that have lead to the development of a conceptual model structure called the mission support model whose main concepts mainly include (1) user roles, (2) services and (3) views.
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Jan Steen Jensen, & Jan Pehrsson. (2009). Central response to large chemical accidents. In S. J. J. Landgren (Ed.), ISCRAM 2009 – 6th International Conference on Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management: Boundary Spanning Initiatives and New Perspectives. Gothenburg: Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management, ISCRAM.
Abstract: Present scenarios, issues, requirements, experience and solutions from a central government organisation supporting local emergency management organisations. The presentation will cover the experience collected in the DIADEM project by the Danish Emergency Management Organisation with the focus of using ARGOS for response to chemical incidents.
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Sébastien Truptil, Frédérick Benaben, & Hervé Pingaud. (2009). Collaborative process design for mediation information system engineering. In S. J. J. Landgren (Ed.), ISCRAM 2009 – 6th International Conference on Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management: Boundary Spanning Initiatives and New Perspectives. Gothenburg: Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management, ISCRAM.
Abstract: To reduce a crisis, heterogeneous actors must coordinate their actions and exchange information. The ISyCri project aims at facilitating this collaboration by providing a Mediation Information System (MIS), which change the set of partners into a system of systems. The design of this MIS is based on the characterization of the crisis and services of actors. The first step of MIS design consists in deducing a collaborative process involving partners of the crisis reduction (from the characterization of the crisis and services of actors). This step is based on a metamodel, which allows to build models (consistent with each other) and ontologies. The inference of the collaborative process is not a trivial issue: The deducing approach uses ontologies and models transformation to organize services according to characteristics of the crisis. This paper discusses this global approach and an illustrative case of study.
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Siska Fitrianie, & Leon J.M. Rothkrantz. (2009). Computed ontology-based situation awareness of multi-user observations. In S. J. J. Landgren (Ed.), ISCRAM 2009 – 6th International Conference on Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management: Boundary Spanning Initiatives and New Perspectives. Gothenburg: Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management, ISCRAM.
Abstract: In recent years, we have developed a framework of human-computer interaction that offers recognition of various communication modalities including speech, lip movement, facial expression, handwriting/drawing, gesture, text and visual symbols. The framework allows the rapid construction of a multimodal, multi-device, and multi-user communication system within crisis management. This paper reports the approaches used in multi-user information integration (input fusion) and multimodal presentation (output fission) modules, which can be used in isolation, but also as part of the framework. The latter is able to specify and produce contextsensitive and user-tailored output combining language, speech, visual-language and graphics. These modules provide a communication channel between the system and users with different communication devices. By the employment of ontology, the system's view about the world is constructed from multi-user observations and appropriate multimodal responses are generated.
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Christian Reuter, Volkmar Pipek, & Claudia Mueller. (2009). Computer supported collaborative training in crisis communication management. In S. J. J. Landgren (Ed.), ISCRAM 2009 – 6th International Conference on Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management: Boundary Spanning Initiatives and New Perspectives. Gothenburg: Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management, ISCRAM.
Abstract: Crisis management requires stakeholders to not only show strategic, organisational preparedness for crisis events (e.g. by systematising and professionalizing coping work), but also to develop skills to deal with unanticipated events and other stakeholders involved in the same crisis. They should not only rely on established information flows and behaviour patterns, but should be able to deal with situational aspects. This usually involves communication work within and between organisations involved in crisis management. We describe the practice of the crisis communication training of a German electricity provider and the prototype we developed, implemented and evaluated. The collaborative training tool targets not only the local practice, but aims at inter-organisational trainings that would also allow improving the mutual understanding for communication practices and information needs of other stakeholders.
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Willem Van Santen, Catholijn M. Jonker, & Niek Wijngaards. (2009). Crisis decision making through a shared integrative negotiation mental model. In S. J. J. Landgren (Ed.), ISCRAM 2009 – 6th International Conference on Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management: Boundary Spanning Initiatives and New Perspectives. Gothenburg: Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management, ISCRAM.
Abstract: Decision making during crises takes place in (multi-agency) teams, in a bureaucratic political context. As a result, the common notion that during crises decision making should be done in line with a Command & Control structure is invalid. This paper shows that the best way for crisis decision making teams in a bureaucratic political context is to follow an integrative negotiation approach as the shared mental model of decision making. This conclusion is based on an analysis of crisis decision making by teams in a bureaucratic political context. First of all this explains why in a bureaucratic political context the Command & Control adage does not hold. Secondly, this paper motivates why crisis decision making in such context can be seen as a negotiation process. Further analysis of the given context shows that an assertive and cooperative approach suits crisis decision making best.
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Rafael A. Gonzalez. (2009). Crisis response simulation combining discrete-event and agent-based modeling. In S. J. J. Landgren (Ed.), ISCRAM 2009 – 6th International Conference on Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management: Boundary Spanning Initiatives and New Perspectives. Gothenburg: Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management, ISCRAM.
Abstract: This paper presents a crisis response simulation model architecture combining a discrete-event simulation (DES) environment for a crisis scenario with an agent-based model of the response organization. In multi-agent systems (MAS) as a computational organization, agents are modeled and implemented separately from the environmental model. We follow this perspective and submit an architecture in which the environment is modeled as a discreteevent simulation, and the crisis response agents are modeled as a multi-agent system. The simultaneous integration and separation of both models allows for independent modifications of the response organization and the scenario, resulting in a testbed that allows testing different organizations to respond to the same scenario or different emergencies for the same organization. It also provides a high-level architecture suggesting the way in which DES and MAS can be combined into a single simulation in a simple way.
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Leon J.M. Rothkrantz, & Zhenke Yang. (2009). Crowd control by multiple cameras. In S. J. J. Landgren (Ed.), ISCRAM 2009 – 6th International Conference on Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management: Boundary Spanning Initiatives and New Perspectives. Gothenburg: Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management, ISCRAM.
Abstract: One of the goals of the crowd control project at Delft University of Technology is to detect and track people during a crisis event, classify their behavior and assess what is happening. The assumption is that the crisis area is observed by multiple cameras (fixed or mobile). The cameras sense the environment and extract features such as the amount of motion. These features are the input to a Bayesian network with nodes corresponding to situations such as terroristic attack, fire, and explosion. Given the probabilities of the observed features, by reasoning, the likelihood of the possible situations can be computed. A prototype was tested in a train compartment and its environment. Forty scenarios, performed by actors, were recorded. From the recordings the conditional probabilities have been computed. The scenarios are designed as scripts which proved to be a good methodology. The models, experiments and results will be presented in the paper.
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Kim Weyns, & Martin Höst. (2009). Dependability of IT systems in municipal emergency management. In S. J. J. Landgren (Ed.), ISCRAM 2009 – 6th International Conference on Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management: Boundary Spanning Initiatives and New Perspectives. Gothenburg: Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management, ISCRAM.
Abstract: In recent years governmental actors have become more and more dependent on IT systems for their responsibilities in a crisis situation. To avoid unexpected problems with the dependability of IT systems in the aftermath of a crisis it is important that such risks are identified and that measures can be taken to reduce the dependence on systems that could be unreliable. This paper describes two case studies exploring how Swedish municipalities incorporate IT systems in their emergency planning. The study focuses especially on how different actors within a municipality cooperate to analyse the risks of depending on IT systems in critical situations. The study shows that today there is much room for improvement, especially in the communication between IT personnel and emergency managers. Finally, this paper describes the requirements for a process improvement framework that can assist governmental actors in analysing and improving their dependency on IT systems in emergency management.
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Xiang Yao, Murray Turoff, & Michael J. Chumer. (2009). Designing a group support system to review and practice emergency plans in virtual teams. In S. J. J. Landgren (Ed.), ISCRAM 2009 – 6th International Conference on Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management: Boundary Spanning Initiatives and New Perspectives. Gothenburg: Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management, ISCRAM.
Abstract: In the 21st century, rapid changes of our society necessitate continuous review and practice of emergency plans. Traditional face-to-face (FtF) interactions to make emergency plans and train responders seem insufficient. The virtual team (VT), a new team form allowing dynamic recruitment of experts from global extent and conduction of teamwork whenever it is needed, provides a more agile solution. This paper introduces a group support system called Collario (Collaborative Scenario) aiming to facilitate effective collaboration in creating and discussing scenarios in VTs and to utilize scenarios as the vehicle to review and practice emergency plans on a continuous basis. This research is still in progress. Three professionals have been involved in system demonstrations and interviews. Although it is still too early to make any conclusions, it is encouraging to know that all the three experts thought Collario easy to use and might be useful for various emergency preparedness purposes.
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Sebastian Denef, Tobias Dyrks, Leonardo Ramirez, Sebastian Denef, Berthold Penkert, & Daniel Meyer. (2009). Designing for firefighters-building empathy through live action role-playing. In S. J. J. Landgren (Ed.), ISCRAM 2009 – 6th International Conference on Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management: Boundary Spanning Initiatives and New Perspectives. Gothenburg: Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management, ISCRAM.
Abstract: In this paper we present a role-playing workshop in a firefighting scenario conducted within the frame of a multidisciplinary consortium. Our work focuses on developing a navigation ubicomp infrastructure leveraging the cognitive skills of firefighters. Technology for navigation must understand existing navigation practices in order to provide adequate support. To deal with the complexity of this process, we use a participatory design approach based on a strong synergy among partners. We argue that a key aspect for the creation of this synergy is the construction of a bond of empathy allowing technology experts to understand the needs of the users of technology and also allowing firefighters to understand the role and activities of technology developers in the process. We present an account of the workshop conducted and some insights of the role that this method can play for complex, multidisciplinary teams working on developing safety-critical technology.
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Julio Camarero Puras, & Carlos A. Iglesias. (2009). Disasters2.0. Application of Web2.0 technologies in emergency situations. In S. J. J. Landgren (Ed.), ISCRAM 2009 – 6th International Conference on Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management: Boundary Spanning Initiatives and New Perspectives. Gothenburg: Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management, ISCRAM.
Abstract: This article presents a social approach for disaster management, based on a social portal, so-called Disasters2.0, which provides facilities for integrating and sharing user generated information about disasters. The architecture of Disasters2.0 is designed following REST principles and integrates external mashups, such as Google Maps. This architecture has been consumed with different clients, including a mobile client, a multiagent system for assisting in the decentralized management of disasters, and an expert system for automatic assignment of resources to disasters. As a result, the platform allows seamless collaboration of humans and intelligent agents, and provides a novel web2.0 approach for multiagent and disaster management research.
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Hagen Engelmann, & Frank Fiedrich. (2009). DMT-EOC – A combined system for the decision support and training of EOC members. In S. J. J. Landgren (Ed.), ISCRAM 2009 – 6th International Conference on Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management: Boundary Spanning Initiatives and New Perspectives. Gothenburg: Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management, ISCRAM.
Abstract: The first hours after a disaster are essential to minimizing the loss of life. The chance for survival in the debris of a collapsed building for example decreases considerably after 72 hours. However the available information in the first hours after a disaster is limited, uncertain and dynamically changing. A goal in the development of the Disaster Management Tool (DMT) was to support the management of this situation. Its module DMT-EOC specifically deals with problems of the members in an emergency operation centre (EOC) by providing a training environment for computer based table top exercises and assistance during earthquake disasters. The system is based on a flexible and extendible architecture that integrates different concepts and programming interfaces. It contains a simulation for training exercises and the evaluation of decisions during disaster response. A decision support implemented as a multi-agent system (MAS) combines operation research approaches and rule-base evaluation for advice giving and criticising user decisions. The user interface is based on a workflow model which mixes naturalistic with analytic decision-making. The paper gives an overview of the models behind the system components, describes their implementation, and the testing of the resulting system.
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Tom De Groeve, & Patrick Riva. (2009). Early flood detection and mapping for humanitarian response. In S. J. J. Landgren (Ed.), ISCRAM 2009 – 6th International Conference on Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management: Boundary Spanning Initiatives and New Perspectives. Gothenburg: Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management, ISCRAM.
Abstract: Space-based river monitoring can provide a systematic, timely and impartial way to detect floods of humanitarian concern. This paper presents a new processing method for such data, resulting in daily flood magnitude time series for any arbitrary observation point on Earth, with lag times as short as 4h. Compared with previous work, this method uses image processing techniques and reduces the time to obtain a 6 year time series for an observation site from months to minutes, with more accurate results and global coverage. This results in a daily update of major floods in the world, with an objective measure for their magnitude, useful for early humanitarian response. Because of its full coverage, the grid-based technique also allows the automatic creation of low-resolution flood maps only hours after the satellite passes, independent of cloud coverage.
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